Preface | p. xii |
1 Electricity | p. 1 |
Electrical Quantities | p. 1 |
Electric Charge, Current and Potential | p. 1 |
Resistance | p. 2 |
Capacitance | p. 4 |
Magnetism | p. 5 |
Self-Inductance | p. 5 |
Direct and Alternating Current; Frequency | p. 7 |
Reactance | p. 8 |
Current and Voltage Sources | p. 9 |
Components, Unwanted Properties | p. 10 |
Unwanted Properties, Impedance | p. 13 |
Cables | p. 16 |
Circuits, Schematics, Kirchoff's Laws | p. 17 |
Composition of Similar Components: Attenuators | p. 19 |
Practical Voltage Sources and Current Sources | p. 22 |
Voltage and Current Measurement | p. 23 |
Composition of Unequal Components: Filters | p. 25 |
Integration and Differentiation | p. 31 |
LC Filters | p. 32 |
2 Electronics | p. 34 |
Active Elements | p. 34 |
Vacuum Tubes and Semiconductors | p. 35 |
Semiconductor Devices | p. 36 |
Diodes and Transistors | p. 37 |
Other Semiconductor Types | p. 40 |
Amplifiers, Gain, Decibels and Saturation | p. 42 |
Gain | p. 43 |
Bandwidth | p. 43 |
Input and Output Impedances | p. 45 |
Maximum Signal Strength, Distortion | p. 46 |
Noise, Hum Interference and Grounding | p. 47 |
Differential Amplifiers, Block Diagrams | p. 55 |
Operational Amplifiers, Feedback | p. 58 |
Electronic Filters | p. 63 |
Electrophysiological Preamplifiers | p. 65 |
Amplifier for Extracellular Recording | p. 65 |
Amplifier for Intracellular Recording | p. 66 |
Patch-Clamp Amplifier | p. 68 |
Two-Electrode Voltage-Clamp Amplifier | p. 71 |
Measurement of Membrane Capacitance in Voltage-Clamp | p. 71 |
Recording of Secretory Events | p. 72 |
Power Supplies and Signal Sources | p. 75 |
Electronic Voltmeters | p. 79 |
Electrometers | p. 79 |
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope | p. 80 |
LCD Screen Oscilloscopes | p. 82 |
Important Properties of Oscilloscopes | p. 82 |
Digital Electronics, Logic | p. 85 |
A/D and D/A Conversions | p. 93 |
Computers | p. 96 |
3 Electrochemistry | p. 103 |
Introduction, Properties of Electrolytes | p. 103 |
Electrolytes | p. 104 |
The Metal/Electrolyte Interface | p. 109 |
Capacitance of Polarized Electrodes | p. 110 |
Faradaic Processes | p. 111 |
Practical Electrodes | p. 113 |
Electrochemical Cells, Measuring Electrodes | p. 113 |
The Silver/Silver Chloride Electrode | p. 114 |
Non-Faradaic Processes | p. 115 |
Electrokinetic Processes | p. 115 |
Liquid Junction Potentials | p. 116 |
Membrane Potentials | p. 118 |
Derivation of the Equilibrium Potential | p. 118 |
The Reversal Potential | p. 119 |
Ion Selectivity | p. 121 |
Electrodes Sensitive to pH and Other Ions | p. 122 |
Electrodes: Practical Aspects | p. 123 |
The Glass Micropipette | p. 123 |
Patch Electrodes | p. 125 |
The Semi-Permeable Patch | p. 126 |
Ground Electrodes | p. 127 |
Volume Conduction: Electric Fields in Electrolyte Solutions | p. 128 |
Homogeneous Electric Field | p. 128 |
Monopole Field | p. 130 |
Dipole Field | p. 130 |
4 Signal Analysis | p. 132 |
Introduction | p. 132 |
Analysis of Analogue Potentials | p. 132 |
Systems Analysis | p. 132 |
Convolution | p. 135 |
The Laplace Transform | p. 138 |
The Fourier Transform | p. 140 |
Odd and Even Functions | p. 144 |
Linearity | p. 144 |
Analogue-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analogue Conversions | p. 146 |
Signal Windowing | p. 148 |
Digital Signal Processing | p. 150 |
Signal Averaging | p. 150 |
Autocorrelation | p. 151 |
Crosscorrelation | p. 153 |
The Discrete Fourier Transform | p. 155 |
The Detection of Signals of Known Shape | p. 156 |
Digital Filters | p. 157 |
Fourier Filters and Non-Causal Filters | p. 160 |
Non-Linear Systems Analysis | p. 164 |
The Formal Method: Wiener Kernel Analysis | p. 164 |
The Informal Method: Output Shape Analysis | p. 166 |
The Importance of Non-Linearity | p. 167 |
Analysis of Action Potential Signals | p. 169 |
Population Spike and Gross Activity | p. 170 |
Recording from the Skin Surface | p. 171 |
The Electrocardiogram | p. 171 |
The Electroencephalogram | p. 173 |
Other Surface Recording Techniques | p. 174 |
Single-Unit Activity | p. 175 |
Uncertainty and Ambiguity in Spike Series | p. 176 |
Interval Histogram | p. 179 |
Poisson Processes | p. 180 |
The Gamma Distribution | p. 182 |
The Mathematics of Random Point Processes | p. 182 |
Markov Chains | p. 184 |
Time Series Analysis: Spike Rate, Interval Series and Instantaneous Frequency | p. 184 |
Spike Frequency or Rate | p. 184 |
Interval Series and Instantaneous Frequency | p. 185 |
Dot Display | p. 187 |
Stimulus-Response Characteristics: The PSTH | p. 188 |
Analysis of Nerve Membrane Data | p. 190 |
Terminology: The Hodgkin and Huxley Channel | p. 190 |
Analysis of Macroscopic (Whole-Cell) Currents | p. 191 |
The Current to Voltage (I/V) Curve | p. 192 |
Leak Subtraction by Extrapolation | p. 193 |
Leak Subtraction by Prepulses: The P/N Method | p. 194 |
Noise Analysis: Estimating the Single-Channel Conductance from Whole-Cell or Large Patch Recordings | p. 194 |
Noise Analysis: Estimating Channel Kinetics | p. 196 |
Analysis of Microscopic (Unitary) Currents | p. 196 |
Estimation of the unitary current | p. 197 |
Detection of opening and closing events | p. 198 |
Estimation of the number of channels in the patch | p. 199 |
Measurement of dwell times | p. 201 |
Calculating Dwell Time Histograms from Markov Chains | p. 204 |
The First Latency Distribution | p. 204 |
The Closed Time Distribution | p. 207 |
The Open Time Distribution | p. 208 |
The Macroscopic Current | p. 208 |
Example: Simulation of the Hodgkin and Huxley Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channel | p. 208 |
Appendices | p. 210 |
A Symbols, Abbreviations and Codes | p. 210 |
Symbols | p. 210 |
Abbreviations | p. 211 |
Decimal Multipliers | p. 212 |
Colour Code for Resistors | p. 212 |
B Symbols for Circuit Diagrams | p. 213 |
C Electrical Safety in Electrophysiological Set-Ups | p. 215 |
Regular Instruments | p. 215 |
Medical Instruments | p. 218 |
D The Use of CRT Monitors in Visual Experiments | p. 221 |
Image Generation in CRT Monitors | p. 221 |
Frame Rates and Interlacing | p. 222 |
The Video Signal | p. 222 |
The Use of CRT Monitors in Electrophysiology | p. 224 |
Contrast, Gamma and Other Brightness Issues | p. 225 |
Colour Coding | p. 226 |
Geometry | p. 227 |
Timing | p. 227 |
Spatial and Brightness Resolution | p. 228 |
E Complex Numbers and Complex Frequency | p. 230 |
The Meaning of Complex Frequency | p. 232 |
F The Mathematics of Markov Chains | p. 233 |
G Recursive (Non-Causal) Filters | p. 239 |
H Pseudocode to Calculate the Macroscopic Current and Dwell Time Distributions from a Transition Matrix | p. 241 |
I Referred and Recommended Literature | p. 244 |
Electricity and Electronics | p. 244 |
Electrochemistry | p. 244 |
Neurophysiology | p. 244 |
Recording Methods | p. 244 |
Signal Analysis | p. 245 |
Mathematics | p. 245 |
Index | p. 246 |