Front Cover -- Liposomal Encapsulation in Food Science and Technology -- Liposomal Encapsulation in Food Science and Technology -- Copyright -- Contents -- List of contributors -- Preface -- 1 - Introductory overview on liposomes -- 1.1 Liposomes -- 1.2 Formation of a liposome -- 1.3 Structure of liposome -- 1.4 Stability of liposomes -- 1.4.1 Effect of cholesterol -- 1.4.2 Surface modifications -- 1.4.2.1 Long-circulating liposomes -- 1.4.2.2 Ligand-targeted liposomes -- 1.4.2.3 pH- and temperature-sensitive liposomes -- 1.5 Digestion of liposomes -- 1.5.1 Enzymatic digestion -- 1.5.2 Nonenzymatic digestion: activity of bile salts -- 1.6 Release kinetics of entrapped molecules -- 1.7 Cellular uptake: liposome-cell interaction -- 1.7.1 Adhesion and leakage -- 1.7.2 Fusion -- 1.7.3 Endocytosis -- 1.7.4 Lipid exchange -- 1.8 Improvement avenues in liposomal encapsulation -- 1.9 Conclusion -- References -- 2 - Vesicular delivery systems: applications and future trends in food technology -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Osomes in vesicular delivery of bioactive compounds and drugs -- 2.2.1 Algosomes -- 2.2.2 Aquasomes -- 2.2.3 Bilosome -- 2.2.4 Capsosomes -- 2.2.5 Cerasomes -- 2.2.6 Chitosomes -- 2.2.7 Niosomes -- 2.2.8 Other significant osomes -- 2.3 Conclusion -- References -- 3 - Formulation and characterization of liposomes -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Mechanism of liposome formation -- 3.3 Techniques of liposome formulation (conventional methods) -- 3.3.1 Passive loading process -- 3.3.2 Active loading process -- 3.4 Mechanical dispersion method for preparation of liposomes -- 3.4.1 The Bangham or thin-film hydration method -- 3.4.2 Sonication -- 3.4.3 French pressure cell -- 3.4.4 Vesicles prepared by extrusion technique (VETs) -- 3.4.5 Microemulsification -- 3.4.6 Dried-reconstituted vesicles (DRVs) -- 3.5 Solvent dispersion method.

3.5.1 Ethanol injection -- 3.5.2 Ether injection (solvent vaporization) -- 3.5.3 Reverse-phase evaporation method -- 3.6 Detergent removal method -- 3.7 Novel methods of liposome preparation -- 3.7.1 Supercritical fluid (SCF) technology -- 3.7.1.1 Rapid expansion of supercritical solutions (RESS) -- 3.7.1.2 Gas antisolvent (GAS)/supercritical antisolvent (SAS) and related processes -- 3.7.1.3 Supercritical assisted liposome formation (SuperLip) -- 3.7.1.4 Depressurization of an expanded liquid organic solution/suspension (DELOS) -- 3.7.1.5 Supercritical reverse-phase evaporation (SRPE) -- 3.7.2 Dual asymmetric centrifugation (DAC) -- 3.7.3 Heating method (HM) -- 3.7.4 Freeze-drying double-emulsion method -- 3.7.5 Modified ethanol injection method -- 3.7.5.1 Microhydrodynamic focusing (MHF) -- 3.7.5.2 Crossflow filtration detergent depletion -- 3.7.5.3 Membrane contactor technology -- 3.7.6 Proliposome (PRL) -- 3.8 Characterization of liposomes -- 3.8.1 Encapsulation efficiency (EE) -- 3.8.2 Shape and morphology of liposomes -- 3.8.3 Lamellarity assays -- 3.8.4 Particle size and size distribution -- 3.8.4.1 Dynamic light scattering (DLS) -- 3.8.4.2 Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) -- 3.8.4.3 Field-flow fractionation (FFF) -- 3.8.4.4 Scanning ion occlusion sensing (SIOS) -- 3.8.5 Surface charge -- 3.8.6 Trapped volume (TV) -- 3.8.7 Phase transitional behavior -- 3.8.8 In vitro release study -- 3.8.9 Chemical characterization of liposomes -- 3.8.10 Vesicle fusion measurement -- 3.9 Fate of liposomes in the human digestive system -- 3.10 Conclusion -- References -- Further reading -- 4 - Liposome-mediated encapsulation of antimicrobials and probiotics -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Encapsulation methods of liposomes -- 4.3 Liposomal encapsulation of antimicrobials -- 4.3.1 Liposomal encapsulation of antimicrobial peptides.

4.3.2 Encapsulation of antimicrobial enzymes -- 4.3.3 Encapsulation of essential oils -- 4.3.4 Encapsulation of antimicrobial phytochemicals -- 4.3.5 Coencapsulation of natural antimicrobial compounds in liposomes -- 4.4 Liposomal encapsulation of probiotics -- 4.4.1 An outlook on probiotics -- 4.4.2 Encapsulation of probiotics -- 4.4.3 Liposomal encapsulation of probiotics -- 4.5 Conclusions and perspectives -- References -- 5 - Liposome-assisted delivery of enzymes and proteins -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Liposomal encapsulation of enzymes and proteins: strategies -- 5.2.1 Method of entrapment of enzymes/proteins in liposomes -- 5.2.2 Enzyme and protein entrapment methods with liposomes -- 5.2.2.1 Entrapment by GRAS solvent -- 5.2.2.2 Entrapment by formulation using freeze-thaw cycles -- 5.2.2.3 PEGylation of liposomes for improved encapsulation -- 5.2.2.4 Liposomes prepared with tetraether lipids -- 5.2.2.5 Stealth liposomes for delivery of enzymes and proteins -- 5.2.2.6 Rapid production of liposomes for high throughput -- 5.3 Process engineering initiatives for enhanced entrapment of enzymes, proteins, and peptides in liposomes -- 5.3.1 Polymer-coated liposomes -- 5.3.2 Enzyme-based immunosensor with liposomes -- 5.3.3 Genetic engineering in enzymes for encapsulation by liposomes -- 5.4 Liposomal entrapment of food-related enzymes -- 5.4.1 Catalase -- 5.4.2 Glucose oxidase -- 5.4.3 Laccase -- 5.4.4 α-Amylase -- 5.4.5 Amyloglucosidase -- 5.4.6 β-Galactosidase -- 5.4.7 Flavourzyme -- 5.4.8 Lipase -- 5.4.9 Trypsin -- 5.4.10 Neutrase -- 5.4.11 Entrapment of proteins from other food sources using liposomes -- 5.5 Biochemical aspect of liposomal enzyme encapsulation -- 5.6 Liposomes for administration of biologically active proteins and peptides in therapeutics -- 5.6.1 Targeting diabetes mellitus with oral delivery of insulin-loaded liposomes.

5.6.2 Delivery of proteins using a protein corona complex in liposomes -- 5.6.3 Liposomes for pulmonary delivery of therapeutic peptides -- 5.6.4 Sonochemical-based liposomal administration of peptides -- 5.6.5 Virosomes for peptide delivery -- 5.6.6 Peptide delivery across the blood-brain barrier -- 5.6.7 Liposomal vaccines -- 5.6.8 Modifications to liposomes for appropriate delivery -- 5.7 Nanoliposomes with improved resilience for delivery -- 5.8 Release and related mechanistic processes of enzymes/proteins from liposomes -- 5.9 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Further reading -- 6 - Liposome for encapsulation of essential oil and fatty acids -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Types of phospholipids and their roles in liposomes -- 6.3 Encapsulation of bioactive compounds -- 6.4 Synthesis of liposomes -- 6.4.1 Film hydration -- 6.4.2 Reverse-phase evaporation -- 6.4.3 Solvent injection -- 6.4.4 Heating of binary mixture -- 6.4.5 Microfluidic channel -- 6.4.6 Supercritical fluid -- 6.5 Importance of liposomal encapsulation of essential oils and fatty acids -- 6.6 Essential oils -- 6.6.1 Chemical composition of essential oils -- 6.6.2 Extraction of essential oils -- 6.6.2.1 Distillation technique -- 6.6.2.2 Solvent extraction -- 6.6.2.3 Supercritical fluid extraction -- 6.6.2.4 Microwave-assisted extraction -- 6.6.3 Effect of essential oils on liposomes -- 6.7 Applications of liposomal essential oils -- 6.8 Basics of fatty acids -- 6.8.1 Essential fatty acids -- 6.9 Liposomal encapsulation of fatty acids -- 6.10 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Further reading -- 7 - Advances in the application of liposomes in dairy industries -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Relevance of bioactive agents' encapsulation in liposomes in dairy industries -- 7.3 Techniques for liposome preparation -- 7.3.1 Thin-film hydration method (TFH).

7.3.2 Homogenization -- 7.3.3 Microfluidization -- 7.3.4 Reverse-phase evaporation technique (REV) -- 7.3.5 Heating method -- 7.3.6 Proliposome method -- 7.3.7 Ethanol injection method -- 7.4 Liposomal encapsulation of dairy products -- 7.4.1 Vesicle size -- 7.4.2 Encapsulation efficiency of bioactive agents -- 7.4.3 Release of bioactive agents -- 7.5 Challenges and opportunities of liposomal encapsulation of dairy compounds -- 7.6 Conclusions -- References -- Further reading -- 8 - Liposomal encapsulation of natural color, flavor, and additives for the food industry -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Liposomal encapsulation of natural food colorants -- 8.2.1 Rationale for the liposomal encapsulation of food colorants -- 8.2.2 Liposomes as carriers of anthocyanins -- 8.2.3 Liposomes for the encapsulation of β-carotene -- 8.2.4 Liposomal encapsulation of betanin -- 8.3 Liposomal encapsulation of food flavors -- 8.3.1 Principles and competitive edge of liposomal encapsulation for flavor encapsulation -- 8.3.2 Applications of flavor-loaded liposomes in baked goods -- 8.3.3 Applications of flavor-loaded liposomes as taste enhancers -- 8.4 Liposomal encapsulation of food additives -- 8.4.1 Encapsulation of antimicrobials by liposomes -- 8.4.1.1 Rationale, advantages, and challenges involved in the liposomal encapsulation of antimicrobials -- 8.4.1.2 Influence of lipid composition on the antimicrobial activity and stability of nisin-loaded liposomes -- 8.4.2 Encapsulation of vitamins by liposomes -- 8.4.2.1 Rationale for the liposomal encapsulation of vitamins and its mechanism of protective action -- 8.4.2.2 Liposomal encapsulation of vitamin C -- 8.4.2.3 Liposomal encapsulation of vitamin A -- 8.4.3 Encapsulation of enzymes by liposomes -- 8.4.3.1 Purpose of encapsulating enzymes within liposomes.

8.4.3.2 Application of enzyme-loaded liposomes in cheese ripening.