Cover -- Foreword -- Preface -- Contents -- Chapter 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Almost the Beginning -- 1.2 Opening Frontiers -- 1.3 Still in Progress -- 1.4 Has Everything Been Already Done? -- 1.5 What Next? -- Chapter 2 International Standards and Regulation on Food Irradiation -- 2.1 International Standardisation and Regulation on Food Irradiation -- 2.2 International Standards on Food Irradiation -- 2.2.1 Codex Alimentarius Standard -- 2.2.2 IPPC Standards -- 2.3 National Regulation on Food Irradiation -- 2.3.1 Regulation of Food Irradiation in North America -- 2.3.2 Regulatory Framework on Food Irradiation in the EU and Its Member States -- 2.3.3 Regulation of Food Irradiation in Asia -- 2.4 International Trade Aspects -- 2.4.1 Potential Trade Conflicts with Current Regulatory Frameworks on Food Irradiation -- 2.4.2 Relevance of the WTO and Applicable WTO Rules -- 2.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3 Gamma Irradiation Plants -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Physics Principles in Gamma Irradiation Plant Designs -- 3.2.1 Attenuation of Gamma Photons Through Materials -- 3.2.2 Design of Sources, Source Racks, and Source Arrangements -- 3.2.3 Product Configurations Around a Source -- 3.2.4 Mathematical Models -- 3.3 Gamma Irradiator Components -- 3.3.1 Biological Shield -- 3.3.2 Product Handling System -- 3.3.3 Radiation Source -- 3.3.4 Control and Safety System Design - Standards, Hazard, and Safety Assessments -- 3.4 Irradiator Designs for Food Applications -- 3.4.1 GRAY*STAR Genesis Irradiator -- 3.4.2 Nordion 2 Pass Pallet Irradiator -- 3.4.3 Sterigenics® 4 Pass Pallet Irradiator -- 3.5 Economic Aspects of Gamma Irradiation of Food -- 3.5.1 Capital Investment -- 3.5.2 Operating Expenses -- 3.5.3 Operational Ranges -- 3.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4 Electron Beam and X-ray Equipment for Food Irradiation Applications -- 4.1 Introduction.

4.2 Key Concepts and Parameters -- 4.2.1 Dose Uniformity and Utilization Efficiency for Electron Beams -- 4.2.2 Dose Uniformity and Utilization Efficiency for X-rays -- 4.2.3 Dose and Dose Rate Estimation for Electrons and X-rays -- 4.2.4 Throughput Estimates for Electrons and X-rays -- 4.3 Key Technology Descriptions -- 4.3.1 Electron Accelerator Systems -- 4.3.2 Beam Scanning Systems -- 4.3.3 Material Handling Systems -- 4.3.4 Systems Analyses and Technology Selection -- 4.4 Food Irradiation System Examples -- 4.5 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 5 Dosimeters for Gamma, E-beam, and X-ray Food Irradiation -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Dosimetry System Definition and Role in Food Irradiation Plant Qualification -- 5.3 Dosimetry Systems for Food Irradiation -- 5.3.1 Selection Criteria of Dosimetry Systems -- 5.3.2 Optical Dosimeters and Readout Equipment -- 5.3.3 Electron Spin Resonance Dosimeters and Readout Equipment -- 5.4 Traceable Calibration of Dosimetry Systems -- 5.5 Future Developments in Dosimetry for Food Irradiation -- Recommended Reading: Relevant ISO/ASTM Standards and Guides -- References -- Chapter 6 Food Phantoms and Absorbed Dose Simulation -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Chemical Dosimeters -- 6.2.1 Principles -- 6.2.2 Phantoms for Dosimetry -- 6.3 Food Phantom Dosimeters -- 6.3.1 Chemical Composition -- 6.3.2 Fabrication Process -- 6.3.3 Handling of Phantom Dosimeters: Pre- and Post-handling -- 6.4 Validation of Food Phantom Dosimeters Using Simulation -- 6.4.1 Absorbed Dose Simulation -- 6.4.2 Radiation Experiment with Low-energy Electrons (1.35 MeV) -- 6.4.3 Radiation Experiment with High-Energy Electrons (10 MeV) -- 6.4.4 Radiation Experiment with 5 MeV X-rays -- 6.5 Future Developments -- 6.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7 Software for Food Irradiation Simulation and Equipment Validation -- 7.1 Introduction.

7.2 Modeling Methodologies -- 7.2.1 Monte Carlo -- 7.2.2 Point Kernel -- 7.3 Modeling as a Process Design Tool -- 7.3.1 Gamma Plants -- 7.3.2 Electron Beam Plants -- 7.3.3 Additional Requirement for Modeling X-ray Plants -- 7.3.4 Radiation Shielding Designs -- 7.4 Examples of Food Irradiation Models -- 7.4.1 Gamma Model -- 7.4.2 Electron Beam Model -- 7.4.3 X-ray Model -- 7.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8 Packaging for Food Irradiation -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Authorized Packaging Materials for Food Packaging Intended for Irradiation -- 8.3 Radiation-induced Changes in the Structure of Packaging Materials and their Role on Packaging Functional Properties -- 8.4 Radiolysis Products from Packaging Materials -- 8.5 Safety Assessment and Dietary Exposure to RPs -- 8.6 Irradiation and Development of Biodegradable Polymer-based Packaging -- 8.7 Food Active Packaging and Gamma Irradiation -- 8.8 Edible Coatings and Films Combined with Gamma Irradiation -- 8.9 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9 Food Irradiation for Phytosanitary and Quarantine Treatment -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Phytosanitary Irradiation -- 9.2.1 Principles -- 9.2.2 Comparison of Irradiation and Alternative Treatments -- 9.3 International and National Standards and Agreements -- 9.3.1 Australia and New Zealand -- 9.3.2 USA -- 9.4 Trade in Fresh Produce -- 9.4.1 Domestic Inter-state Trade -- 9.4.2 International Trade -- 9.5 Outstanding Issues -- 9.5.1 Generic Doses -- 9.5.2 Dose and Energy Limits -- 9.5.3 Labeling -- 9.5.4 Consumer Reaction and the Future -- 9.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10 Food Irradiation as Sanitary Treatment -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Response of Foodborne Microorganisms to Ionizing Radiation -- 10.2.1 Microbial Inactivation Kinetics -- 10.2.2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors -- 10.3 Applications of Food Irradiation as a Sanitary Treatment.

10.3.1 Aromatic and Medicinal Plants -- 10.3.2 Fresh Fruits and Vegetables -- 10.3.3 Meat, Fish, and Eggs -- 10.3.4 Food Irradiation for Immunocompromised Patients, Calamity Situations, and Space Missions -- 10.4 Conclusion and Future Trends -- References -- Chapter 11 Food Irradiation Chemistry -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Main Chemical Effects of Irradiation -- 11.2.1 Water Radiolysis -- 11.2.2 Free Radical Formation and Interaction with Molecules -- 11.2.3 New Compounds Formed by Radiation -- 11.3 Foodstuff Major Component Changes -- 11.3.1 Electron Beam Irradiation Effects -- 11.3.2 Gamma Irradiation Effects -- 11.3.3 X-ray Irradiation Effects -- 11.4 Chemical Changes Limited by Irradiation Conditions -- 11.5 Modification, Improvement, and Extractability of Chemical Compounds -- 11.6 Best Radiation Source, Lower Impact: Gamma, E-beam, or X-rays? -- 11.7 Future Perspectives -- 11.7.1 Current Trends Regarding Food Processing and Radiochemistry Studies -- 11.7.2 Further Knowledge is Needed: What We Know and What Is Missing -- References -- Chapter 12 Methods Combined with Irradiation for Food Preservation -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Combined Treatments: The Hurdle Concept -- 12.3 Food Preservation Factors and Technologies -- 12.4 Irradiation in Hurdle Approaches -- 12.4.1 Combination with Packaging and Refrigerated Storage -- 12.4.2 Combination with Modified Atmosphere Packaging -- 12.4.3 Combination with Edible Coatings -- 12.4.4 Combination with Natural and Chemical Preservatives -- 12.4.5 Combination with Heat Treatments -- 12.4.6 Combination with Cold Treatments and Freezing -- 12.4.7 Combination with Low Water Activity -- 12.4.8 Irradiation in Multiple-hurdle Approaches -- 12.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 13 Physical Detection Methods.

13.1 Food Irradiation and the Detection of Food Preserved by Radiation -- 13.2 Legislation -- 13.3 Physical Methods -- 13.3.1 ESR/EPR Spectroscopy -- 13.3.2 Luminescence Techniques -- 13.3.3 Physical Methods not Accepted Presently for Practical Use -- 13.4 Reporting to the European Commission -- 13.5 Future Trends -- References -- Chapter 14 Chemical Methods -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Potential Target Compounds -- 14.2.1 Products Resulting from Peroxidation Reactions -- 14.2.2 Fatty Acids and Irradiation-induced Hydrocarbons -- 14.2.3 Stable Radiolytic Macromolecule Derivatives -- 14.2.4 H2 - Changes in Gas Composition -- 14.3 High-performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) -- 14.4 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) -- 14.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 15 Biological Techniques -- 15.1 Biological Changes in Irradiated Foods -- 15.2 Detection of Irradiated Foods by Biological Methods -- 15.2.1 Measurement of DNA Changes -- 15.2.2 Measurement of Microbiological Changes -- 15.2.3 Measurement of Histological and Morphological Changes: Germination and Half-embryo Tests -- 15.3 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 16 Toxicological Aspects of Irradiated Foods -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Formation of Radiolytic Products -- 16.2.1 Formation of 2-Alkylcyclobutanones -- 16.2.2 Formation of Furans in Food -- 16.2.3 Formation of Volatiles and Off-flavours in Meat -- 16.3 Health Risks Associated with Radiolytic Products -- 16.4 Reducing the Effects of Radiolytic Products -- 16.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends -- References -- Chapter 17 Successful Marketing of Irradiated Foods -- 17.1 Introduction -- 17.2 Background -- 17.2.1 Food Safety -- 17.2.2 Insect Control -- 17.3 The Common Past of Food Technologies -- 17.3.1 Pasteurization -- 17.3.2 Anti-vaccination Movement -- 17.3.3 Anti-chlorination Movement.

17.3.4 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).