Chapter 1 Traditional chocolate making -- 1.1 History -- 1.2 Outline of the process -- 1.2.1 Preparation of cocoa nib - flavour development -- 1.2.2 Grinding - particle size reduction -- 1.2.3 Conching - flavour and texture development -- 1.3 Concept of the book -- References -- Chapter 2 Cocoa beans: from tree to factory -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Growing cocoa -- 2.2.1 Where cocoa is grown -- 2.2.2 Varieties of cocoa: Criollo, Forastero, Trinitario and Nacional -- 2.2.3 Climatic and environmental requirements -- 2.2.4 Propagation of the planting material -- 2.2.5 Establishment and development of the plants in the field -- 2.2.6 Major pests and diseases -- 2.2.7 Flowering and pod development -- 2.2.8 Harvesting, pod opening and yields -- 2.2.9 Environmental and sustainability aspects of cocoa cultivation -- 2.2.10 Labour practices on farms -- 2.3 Fermentation and drying -- 2.3.1 Fermentation -- 2.3.2 Microbiological aspects of fermentation -- 2.3.3 Development of cocoa flavour precursors -- 2.3.4 Drying -- 2.4 The cocoa supply chain -- 2.4.1 Internal market -- 2.4.2 International cocoa markets -- 2.4.3 Shipment of cocoa -- 2.4.4 Moisture movement during shipment -- 2.4.5 Storage o cocoa -- 2.4.6 Infestation of cocoa -- 2.5 The cocoa value chain: long-term perspectives and challenges -- 2.6 Quality assessment of cocoa -- 2.6.1 Composition of cocoa beans -- 2.6.2 Cocoa beans: quality aspects and contracts -- 2.6.3 Cocoa beans: sampling and the "cut test" -- 2.6.4 Contaminants and residues -- 2.6.5 Cocoa butter hardness -- 2.6.6 Sensory evaluation -- 2.7 Types and origins of cocoa beans used in chocolate -- 2.7.1 Sources of bulk cocoas -- 2.7.2 Côte d'Ivoire -- 2.7.3 Ghana -- 2.7.4 Indonesia -- 2.7.5 Nigeria -- 2.7.6 Cameroon -- 2.7.7 Brazil -- 2.7.8 Ecuador.

2.7.9 Speciality and "fine" or "flavour" cocoas -- Conclusions -- References -- Appendix: Abbreviations, acronyms and organisations -- Chapter 3 Production of cocoa mass, cocoa butter and cocoa powder -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Cleaning of cocoa beans -- 3.3 Removal of shell -- 3.4 Breaking and winnowing -- 3.5 Alkalisation -- 3.6 Bean and nib roasting -- 3.7 Cocoa mass (cocoa liquor) -- 3.7.1 Grinding cocoa nibs -- 3.7.2 Quality of cocoa mass for the chocolate industry -- 3.7.3 Quality of cocoa mass for the production of cocoa powder and butter -- 3.8 Cocoa butter -- 3.9 Cocoa press cake and cocoa powder -- 3.9.1 Types of cocoa powder -- 3.9.2 Quality of cocoa powder -- Conclusion -- Appendix: Manufacturers of cocoa processing equipment -- References and further reading -- Chapter 4 Sugar and bulk sweeteners -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The production of sugar -- 4.3 Sugar qualities -- 4.4 The storage of sugar -- 4.5 Sugar grinding and the prevention of sugar dust explosions -- 4.6 Amorphous sugar -- 4.7 Other sugars and bulk sweeteners -- 4.7.1. Invert sugar -- 4.7.2 Glucose -- 4.7.3 Fructose -- 4.7.4 Tagatose -- 4.7.5 Lactose -- 4.7.6 Isomaltulose -- 4.7.7 Trehalose -- 4.7.8 Polydextrose -- 4.7.9 Inulin -- 4.7.10 Sorbitol -- 4.7.11 Mannitol -- 4.7.12 Xylitol -- 4.7.13 Erythritol -- 4.7.14 Maltitol -- 4.7.15 Maltitol syrup -- 4.7.16 Isomalt -- 4.7.17 Lactitol -- 4.8 Physiological characteristics of sugars, bulk sweeteners and special polysaccharides -- 4.9 The sweetening power of sugars and bulk sweeteners -- 4.10 Other sensory properties of sugars and bulk sweeteners -- 4.11 Solubilities and melting points of sugars and bulk sweeteners -- 4.12 Maximum conching temperatures of chocolate masses with different bulk sweeteners -- 4.13 Separate conching process for "no sugar added" chocolates -- 4.14 Pre- and probiotic chocolates -- Conclusions.

References -- Chapter 5 ingredients from milk -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Milk components -- 5.2.1 Milk protein -- 5.2.2 Milk fat -- 5.2.3 Lactose -- 5.2.4 Vitamins and minerals -- 5.3 Milk-based ingredients for chocolate -- 5.3.1 Milk fat ingredients -- 5.3.2 Milk powders -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 6 Chocolate crumb -- 6.1 Introduction and history -- 6.2 Benefits of milk crumb -- 6.3 Typical crumb recipes -- 6.4 Flavour development in chocolate crumb -- 6.5 Sugar crystallisation during crumb manufacture -- 6.6 The structure of chocolate crumb -- 6.6.1 Crystallinity -- 6.6.2 Fat availability -- 6.6.3 Fat droplet size -- 6.6.4 Aeration -- 6.6.5 Overall particle size distribution -- 6.7 Typical crumb processes and equipment -- 6.7.1 Batch oven process -- 6.7.2 Continuous processes -- 6.8 Effect of the ;crumb process upon the crumb properties -- 6.9 Changes to crumb during storage -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 7 Properties of cocoa butter and vegetable fats -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Cocoa butter -- 7.2.1 Fatty acid and triglyceride composition -- 7.2.2 Polymorphism -- 7.2.3 Minor components -- 7.3 Cocoa butter equivalents -- 7.3.1 Main CBE component fats -- 7.3.2 Other CBE component fats -- 7.3.3 Structured triglycerides in CBEs -- 7.3.4 Production and uses of CBEs -- 7.4 Lauric cocoa butter substitutes -- 7.4.1 Quality control -- 7.4.2 Hydrogenated lauric CBSs -- 7.5 Non-lauric cocoa butter replacers -- 7.6 Vegetable fats with specific properties -- 7.6.1 Anti-bloom fats -- 7.6.2 Lower-calorie fats -- Conclusion -- References and further reading -- Chapter 8 Flavour development in cocoa and chocolate -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Fermentation -- 8.2.1 The fermentation process -- 8.2.2 Chemical changes and development of flavour precursors -- 8.2.3 Over-fermentation -- 8.3 Drying.

8.3.1 Influence of drying on flavour and flavour precursors -- 8.3.2 Flavour of unroasted, fermented cocoa beans -- 8.4 Roasting -- 8.4.1 The roasting process -- 8.4.2 Utilisation of flavour precursors -- 8.4.3 Roast flavour -- 8.4.4 Flavour of alkalised cocoa -- 8.5 Conching -- 8.5.1 Thin-film treatment of roasted cocoa mass -- 8.5.2 The conching process -- 8.5.3 Effect of conching on aroma development -- 8.6 Dark chocolate and milk chocolate -- 8.6.1 Dark chocolate flavour -- 8.6.2 Milk chocolate flavour -- 8.7 Flavour release in chocolate -- References -- Chapter 9 Particle size reduction -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Principles of fine grinding -- 9.2.1 Breakage mechanisms -- 9.2.2 Grinding processes -- 9.3 Grinding equipment -- 9.3.1 Crushers -- 9.3.2 Media mills -- 9.3.3 Impact mills -- 9.3.4 Fluid energy mills -- 9.3.5 Guidelines for equipment selection -- 9.4 Cocoa nib grinding -- 9.5 Chocolate refining -- 9.5.1 The five-roll refiner -- 9.5.2 Crumb chocolate -- 9.5.3 Sugar substitutes -- 9.5.4 The refiner-conche -- 9.5.5 Refining in the ;presence of water -- 9.5.6 Milling cocoa powder -- 9.6 Particle size reduction and chocolate flow properties -- 9.7 Particle size and sensory properties -- Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10 Conching -- 10.1 Introduction: the reason for conching -- 10.1.1 Flavour development -- 10.1.2 Flow property optimisation -- 10.2 The principles of conching -- 10.2.1 Removal of volatiles and temperature control -- 10.2.2 Fat and emulsifier additions -- 10.2.3 Degree of mixing -- 10.3 The three phases of conching -- 10.3.1 Dry phase conching -- 10.3.2 Pasty phase conching -- 10.3.3 Liquid phase conching -- 10.4 Conching machines -- 10.4.1 History -- 10.4.2 The first conche development -- 10.4.3 Classification of conches -- 10.4.4 Vertically oriented shaft conches -- 10.4.5 Horizontally oriented shaft conches.

10.4.6 Single shaft conches -- 10.4.7 Two shaft conches -- 10.4.8 Three shaft conches -- 10.4.9 Continuous conches -- 10.4.10 Add-on solutions to the conching process -- 10.4.11 Combined grinding and conching -- Conclusion -- References and further reading -- Chapter 11 Chocolate flow properties -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Non-Newtonian flow -- 11.3 Presentation of viscosity measurements -- 11.4 Single point flow measurement -- 11.4.1 Gallenkamp torsion viscometer -- 11.4.2 MacMichael viscometer -- 11.5 Rotational viscometers -- 11.6 Vibrational viscometers -- 11.7 Oscillatory rheometers -- 11.8 Sample preparation and measurement procedures -- 11.8.1 Sample preparation -- 11.8.2 Checking the viscometer -- 11.8.3 Preconditioning -- 11.8.4 Shear rate range -- 11.8.5 Holding time at the maximum shear rate -- 11.8.6 Hysteresis -- 11.8.7 Overall measurement time -- 11.9 Factors affecting the flow properties of chocolate -- 11.9.1 Fat content -- 11.9.2 Particle size distribution -- 11.9.3 Surface active agents (emulsifiers) -- 11.9.4 Conching -- 11.9.5 Moisture -- 11.10 Advanced methods to characterise chocolate flow behaviour -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Chapter 12 Bulk chocolate handling -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Viscosity and viscometry -- 12.2.1 What is viscosity? -- 12.2.2 Laminar and turbulent flow -- 12.3 Pump sizes -- 12.3.1 Power -- 12.3.2 Speed -- 12.4 General criteria for choosing a pump -- 12.5 Types of pump -- 12.5.1 Gear pumps -- 12.5.2 Sliding vane pump -- 12.5.3 Lobe and rotary piston pumps -- 12.5.4 Screw pump -- 12.5.5 Pawl pumps -- 12.5.6 Progressive cavity pump -- 12.5.7 Positive displacement piston and diaphragm pumps -- 12.6 Pipeline pigging -- 12.7 Storage of liquid chocolate -- 12.8 Jacketed pipe work -- 12.8.1 Corrosion of stainless steel -- 12.9 Valves -- 12.9.1 Plug cock valve -- 12.9.2 Butterfly valve.

12.9.3 Ball valve.